Hunger Issues in the World :: World Hunger

There argon people in the world so hungry, that God cannot appear to them except in the form of bread Charles Dickens, Oliver thread World hunger is one of the biggest problems faced in this world today. close to 24,000 people die every day, and most of these deaths are faced by children nether five. Even though there is a lot of food in the world, some people in the world cant access these foods because of poverty. About 1/10 of the world population suffer from chronic hunger every year. Because of the hunger problem, the majority of people suffer from blindness, anemia, malnutrition related problems and other diseases because they are not getting sufficiency diet.There are lots of countries facing hunger issues in the world. Most of the hungry countries are undeveloped countries and some ontogenesis countries. Some of the hungry countries are, D.R. Congo, Somalia, Burundi, Eritrea, Mozambique, Zambia, Haiti, Sierra Leone, Tajikistan, and Afghanistan. Most of the hungry countries are located in Africa. Out of all these countries Somalia is hungriest country in Africa, and followed by Haiti in aboriginal America. The main reason why there are lots of hunger crisis in Somalia is because of the natural resources were destroyed by the civil war. Another reason is many amounts of drought and flooding. But one of the main reasons that Somalia is hungry is poverty. Their per capita GDP per year is $500. Since their natural resources were destroyed by the civil war, they cant grow adapted food. So, the food gets transported from other countries the food prices increases every day. Many people in the country are poverty that means that they cant buy enough food to feed themselves because it is too expensive. The second hungriest country in the world is Haiti. Some problem it faces that leads to hunger is 80 percent of people live in poverty. Most of their natural resources were destroyed by hurricanes, floods, and tropical storms. An additional reason wh y Haiti is hungry is because they have weak government. Bibliography United Nations World nutrient syllabus (WFP), Oxfam, UNICEF. Hunger and World Poverty January 2007. . Found online Sunday, December 13, 2009 The State of Food Insecurety in the World 2003, United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation UN World Food Program U.

Night And A Farewell To Arms: Eliezer And Frederic :: essays research papers

In Night and A Farewell to Arms, the reader follows the characters of Elie Wiesel and Ernest Hemingway through their personal struggles mingled with love and war. In Night, Eliezer faces malnutrition, Nazis, and concentration camps, while Frederick Henry, in A Farewell to Arms, struggles with love, patriotism, and religion. Despite their differences, the journeys of these two young men are remarkably similar they two are prisoners of war, they both lose the person they love most, and they both face a bleak and dismal fate.Frederic and Eliezer are both prisoners of war but in different ways. Frederic has a strong emotional attachment to the war. Dont talk about the war, he says after abandoning the front, it was overbut I did non have the feeling it was really over (Hemingway 245). For Frederic the war captured his mind in a way that he cannot escape. Eliezer is also a POW but in a more concrete and physical way. Before being imprisoned, Eliezer is stripped of his clothes, his sel f-respect, and his identity, and he is forced into barracks. The barracks we had been made to go into were very longThe antechamber of sin must look like this. So many crazed men, so many cries, so many bestial brutality (Wiesel 32). It is only love that allowed Frederic and Eliezer to get through their prisons. Catherine Barkley is Fredericks true love. I felt damned lonely and was glad when the train got to StresaI was expecting my wife (Hemingway 243-244). This quote shows the physical and emotional yearning that Catherine inspires in Frederic. This desire for her is what helps him through the war. Eliezers love, on the other hand, is directed towards his father. Eliezer feels that his father is his only possesion that the Nazis cannot take from him. Ill keep up over you and then you can watch over me. We wont let each other fall asleep. We will look after each other (Wiesel 85). The loss of both Eliezers father and Frederics fiance ones is what inevitably leads to a dismal fu ture. The tragic fall of these two young characters is directly related to the toll their prisons place on them and the absence of the ones they love. I had not seen myself since the ghetto. From the depths of the mirror a corpse gazed back at me (Wiesel 109). As Eliezer looks at himself, he sees that he is a hollow boy.

Essay on The Great Gatsby -- English Literature

Essay on The Great GatsbyThe Great Gatsby is a novel close to a man who tries to win over a womanhe had lost many years ago. Jay Gatsby is the hero in this novelbecause he stands prohibited amongst the rich. Unlike the rest of the richpeople in this novel Gatsby has moral values, and the rest of them canonly grasp things of material value. Gatsby spends his whole life essay to hide the fact that he wasnt like the other(a)s. Gatsby neverfits in among them because what he perceives of them is all wrong,they were as uncivil as anyone else. Through being slight primitive thanthe rich, determination for love, being ruled by his emotions thaterase any doubt, he is quiet tempered which upholds his greatness,and he is protected by others that tell us of his importance.Gatsby is not as primitive as the rest of the rich humans, he is moremannered and civil. The people at his parties are all wild and notcivil, what you would not expect from people of this stature. Gatsbyis this way because he has had to earn his money and has not justinherited it like the lazy lot of them. The only other person thatcomes close to Gatsby is ding, but we dont get to see what he wouldbe like with wealth. Throughout the novel Gatsby looks out upon thecrowd, when he comes tidy sum to greet cut off he is very polite to everyonesurrounding him, knowing they spread rumors and lies about him. Hedoesnt think anything of it because he knows its innate(p) for peopleto gossip, he cant judge them on it because it is the crowd he wishesto become. Nick tells Gatsby he is better than the whole rotten bunchof them, Nick realizes this because he knows what it is like to bepoor and he knows Gatsby still acts like a poor man, but he has allt... ...new him. He always wants Nick to come with him onthings he is unsure of, like when meeting daisy for the first time ineight years (p.83). He needs others to fulfill his self-reliance inhimself, it is how he got as far he did in the novel (money wise). Heon ly meets new people through association with someone else in thenovel, he meets Nick through Jordan and Daisy through Nick. He islike this because he expects things to come to him like they have inthe past like his job from Meyer Wolfshiem. jam Gatsby is the hero in the novel through his modern acts,determination for love, his conquering emotions, his quiettemperament, and his protected state. A hero is someone unlike theothers and Gatsby fills this character perfectly in the novel. Therefore Gatsby is the character and no one else should even beconsidered for his place in The Great Gatsby.

An Analysis of Charlotte Brontes Jane Eyre :: Jane Eyre Essays

An Analysis of Jane Eyre The novel is exuberant in poetry, symbolism and metaphor. It does not fit easily into a definite pattern, be neither a novel of manners in the tradition of Austen, or a straightforward Gothic Romance in the style of Mrs Radcliffe. What Charlotte Bronte did was to create a work which cleverly blends elements of the two styles, and which remains uniquely independent of them at the same time, since it addresses issues which were at the time rather controversial. The novel is written in the scratch line person, and thus magnifies the central character - the reader enters the world of Jane Eyre and is transported through her experiences at first hand. This at once makes the work subjective, especially since we know that Charlottes Brontes own smell and experiences were so closely interwoven with the heroines. As well as this we learn only at the end of the novel that the events are being related to us ten years after the reconciliation with Rochester - thus the narrative is RETROSPECTIVE (looking back). CB is clever in blending the narrative so that at times Jane seems to be speaking as an adult with adult hindsight , while at others she she is in the middle of them, as a child or young woman. The indecision which is a central issue in the book, is heightened by this device. We never know, as readers, whether to be entirely trustful of Janes actions and thoughts, because we are never sure wheher she is speaking impulsively or maturely. This intensifies the readers dilemma as to what is right and wrong in the dramatic relationships which are part of JEs life. Can we believe what the heroine says, or is she deceiving herself? The novel is primarily a discern story and a court where wishes come true but only after trials and suffering. The supernatural has its place, as do dreams, portents and prophesies. The heroine begins poor and lonely and ends up rich and loved the orphan finds a good family to replace the wicked one all the basic ingredients of classic romantic fairytale are present. The romantic element is present in two forms in Jane Eyre the family aspect is dealt with in the Gateshead, Lowood and Moor House episodes, which involve the exchanging of the wicked Reed family for the benevolent Rivers one and the Love romance is dealt with in the Thornfield and Ferndean episodes.

Interpreting the Actions of Nicholas DeGenova: :: Essays Papers

Interpreting the Actions of Nicholas DeGenova While speaking at an anti-war teach in, Columbia Professor, Nicholas DeGenova birdcalled for a million Mogadishus and an American loss in Iraq, which has led to a controversy over his future employment at the university. Although some may consider this hate speech, there is a thin draw in between that and infringing upon a profs freedom of speech. As students at Syracuse University, we realize that this could have potentially occurred at our school, still still do not advocate firing Nicholas DeGenova. According to the Faculty Handbook of Columbia University and the guidelines of the American Association of University Professors (AAUP), DeGenova is protected by his rights as a citizen and as a professor to free speech even if it does go against popular opinion. However, the statements made were no doubt offensive especially in a time of war, which is why we feel that DeGenova should be reprimanded, but definitely not fir ed. First and foremost, as a citizen, Nicholas DeGenova, is protected under the First Amendment of U.S. Constitution. This provides that Congress shall make no rightfulness respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the establishment for a redress of grievances(Amendment I). Furthermore, DeGenova definitely had the right to assemble and speak out in the anti-war teach-in although it angered many. In addition, under the Columbia University Handbook and the guidelines of the AAUP, as a professor he may not be penalized by the University for expressions of opinion or associations in their private or civic capacity but they should bear in mind the special obligations arising from their position in the academic community(Academic Freedom). The AAUP and Columbia University only outline punishment for when ready harm to the faculty member or others is threatened by the faculty members continuance(Procedural Recommendations). Since none of these codes that DeGenova must follow call for firing in this type of situation, his employment at Columbia University cannot be terminated on these grounds. While DeGenova abided by the laws that govern him as a professor and as a citizen, we still feel that he should be reprimanded.

Interpreting the Actions of Nicholas DeGenova: :: Essays Papers

Interpreting the Actions of Nicholas DeGenova While speaking at an anti-war teach in, Columbia Professor, Nicholas DeGenova called for a million Mogadishus and an American loss in Iraq, which has led to a controversy over his future employment at the university. Although some may consider this hate speech, there is a thin line between that and infringing upon a profs set-apartdom of speech. As students at Syracuse University, we realize that this could have potentially occurred at our school, but still do not encourage firing Nicholas DeGenova. According to the Faculty Handbook of Columbia University and the guidelines of the American Association of University Professors (AAUP), DeGenova is protected by his rights as a citizen and as a professor to free speech even if it does go against popular opinion. However, the statements made were no doubt offensive especially in a time of war, which is why we feel that DeGenova should be reprimanded, but definitely not fired. First and foremost, as a citizen, Nicholas DeGenova, is protected under the First Amendment of U.S. Constitution. This provides that Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a return of grievances(Amendment I). Furthermore, DeGenova definitely had the right to assemble and speak out in the anti-war teach-in although it angered many. In addition, under the Columbia University Handbook and the guidelines of the AAUP, as a professor he may not be penalized by the University for expressions of opinion or associations in their private or civic capacity but they should bear in mind the special obligations arising from their position in the academic community(Academic Freedom). The AAUP and Columbia University only outline punishment for when immediate harm to the cogency member or others is threatened by the faculty members continuance(Procedural Recommendations). Since none of these codes that DeGenova must follow call for firing in this type of situation, his employment at Columbia University cannot be terminated on these grounds. While DeGenova abided by the laws that govern him as a professor and as a citizen, we still feel that he should be reprimanded.

Shouter Baptists

Ordellia Darlington 00011164 Portfolio Entry IV At first, the notion of roarer Baptist being considered a religion was a joke to me. Whenever, I heard the name Shouter Baptist only one thing came to my mind obeah tribe. There were times that I will see them in prayer and I will cross the street. Nevertheless, the electrifying power point video accompanied with other sources has taught me a great deal on the religion, the people and their rituals.I had always assumed that all the Shouter Baptists had to offer was catching power by means of shaking and speaking in tongues. I had believed that the Shouter Baptists were spiritually possessed. However, never had I known that speaking tongues is similar to conversing with God. Evidence of this is shown in the book of Acts. 21-8. Speaking tongues is one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit referred to in the Bible. It send away be described as a phenomenon during which the believer speaks in languages unknown to him / her in his / her everyday life.Another aspect I never understood was the significance of almost of the symbols the Shouter Baptists frequently use. Symbols such as the bell, lothar, incense and flowers play an important role in the Shouter Baptist faith. The bell is used at the beginning of the avail to call members to worship, at the end of the service or according to spiritual instructions. It is said to awaken the believers souls to the presence of the Holy Spirit. I now understand what is meant by the saying Every time a bell rings an angel gets his wings?The lothar is a vessel used in the church. It symbolizes the holy state of human race before God in worship and contains water and flowers. The flowers beautify the church and symbolize peace, love and joy, which be kept alive by the water of life. Flowers are Gods handiwork and are used to decorate the altar, center pole and corners of the church. It also represent mans first habitat, the Garden of Eden. What I admire about the Shouter Baptists is their willingness to give back to society.They give thanks to God various times throughout the year feeding the children in their community. For Thanksgiving, Shouter Baptists express gratitude to God for his blessings through, full gospel and prayers, singing, clapping and rejoicing. The children in the community are given food and snacks. The Thanksgiving is held after special occasions in members lives, such as success in an undertaking, or recovery from an illness. It also recognizes Gods mercy.The Shouter Baptist belief in giving thanks is support by Luke 14 12-14 (Then Jesus said to his host, When you give a luncheon or dinner, do not invite your friends, your brothers or sisters, your relatives, or your abstruse neighbours if you do, they may invite you back and so you will be repaid. 13But when you give a banquet, invite the poor, the crippled, the lame, the blind, 14and you will be blessed. Although they cannot honour you, you will be repaid at the resurrection of the ri ghteous. )

American Lit: Anne, the Author to Her Book, Mistress Bradstreet Essay

In Anne, begin with The Author to Her Book, which evidently was written as the epigraph to the second edition of her collection of poems. What of her personality as a woman comes through in the poem?In The Author to Her Book It is immediate that the reader knows that a woman and a mother wrote this piece. Thou ill-formed pipspring of my fallible brain, Who after birth didst by my side remain This sentence sets the stage for everything that would come next ab unwrap her from staying by her side while children, to going out into the world with friends, and becoming adults and moving out of the house. Threw the middle of the poem, lines 5-10, you can tell that she is unhappy with her children for what is unclear but brat and cast thee by as nonpareil unfit for light cant be a good sign. The last two lines though you can tell she will always distinguish her children but she has to let them go. For a mother in that time period, especially a mother of 8, you can really get the sense o f how much of an up and down ride I was to raise so many children and all the responsibilitys that when along with it.In Mistress Bradstreet, what poems show her in her affectionate life as the wife of a high official?From reading Upon the Burning of Our House I can gather that she was a wife of a high official or that she had had any money is to be new to Virginia she and her husband had many thing you wouldnt think would be in a typical pilgrims home. Things that were burn such as a trunk, table and her stores even though she doesnt really describe her stores, these alone would tell you that she was better off than most even before the mention of pelf which meant money or wealth.Works CitedGeorge Perkins, B. P. (2009). The American Tradition in Literature. New York McGraw Hill.

All Ur Needs IT Report

All Ur Needs is a chain of deuce-ace stigmatizes located in two villages which is owned by two brothers. They also have an office over the larger two stores. The current dust apply by the brothers and staff is a manual paper based system except for some word processing and spreadsheets. The brothers have decided to fully implement a estimatorised system to gain all the benefits of IT. The aim of this report is recommending how the business should proceed with its expansion into the world of IT.Requirements for new system As the brothers have decided to change to a computerised system, specialist hardware and software lead lease to be recommended, bribed, installed, maintained and the staff entrust motif to be trained including the brothers. The system should cover tired control and re-ordering, payroll, accounts and EFTPOS. alike(p)ly the brothers want an online ordering system. A fully networked computer system go away be required to allow data sharing, privacy, commu nication and lucre connectivity.This will involve purchasing computers which are networked, networking hardware, selecting which network to set up. The network will also be over the internet so all three centres will be connected. Other hardware that will be recommended is eftpos machines to allow the business to take chip and pin. Software will also be recommended for line control, accounts, payroll, and office software for general office duties like word processing. A web designer will be recommended for the business to move into online ordering.Lastly there will be a report on RFIDs explaining all the functionality and possibilities together with advantages and limitations. Networks and hardware The three centres will have to be interconnected to allow promiscuous sharing of data, stock control and communication and any other business tasks. The main solution is to create a network using computers and a server. Also an internet connection will be indispensablenessed to allow networking over a geographical area, in this case the third shop in the nearby village of Apenury.The business will need four computers, three for the shops and ace for the office. These computers will not be expensive as the business does not need high manageance computers except for the server, however as the brothers and staff dont know much about computers it will be necessary to purchase installation and training which could be costly. Solution to hardware purchasing will be recommended along with justifications, the following hardware would be necessary to create a fully networked computer system. Server a computer or device on a network that manages network resources, the business will only need one lower power server as only a few user will be connected to the network Processor the processor is the brains of the computer, the processor is where most of the calculations take place and it is the most important element of a computer. The business would not need a high perf ormance processor as they wont be performing demanding tasks, however the server may need a more powerful processor to manage the network efficiently Ram random access memory is a type of computer memory that can be accessed randomly.The business would only need 128 to 256 of ram to perform the day to day tasks of a business, however more memory would make the computer run more faster, memory can be easily be upgraded as the business grows Hard drive the mechanism that reads and writes data on a hard disk. The business would only need between 40 and 60 GB of hard disk space as they wont have large amount of data DVD/RW a re-recordable DVD format similar to CD/RW, the data on a videodisk/rw can easily be erased and recorded numerous times without damaging the medium. The business would need dvd/rw to back up data if there is a disaster or data loss. Monitor (tft) a type of LCD flat panel queer screen, the tft provides the best resolution of all flat panel techniques. Flat pane l pompositys are quiet expensive, but it is recommended for the business as they are ergonomic. The business will only need a 15 inch size monitor. Graphics card a board that plugs into a personal computer to give it display capabilities. The business wont need a graphics card as it will come integrated with the motherboard and graphics cards are only need when running demanding tasks like multimedia software. Mouse a device that controls the movement of the cursor on a display screen. A standard mouse will come with the computer. Keyboard a standard keyboard will come with the computer Hub A common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs are commonly used to connect segments of a LAN. This will be required to connect all the computers to the server this will come with the server. Motherboard the man circuit board of a computer where all devices connect to. The business wont need an expensive motherboard, just the one that is compatible with the processor. Network card an expansion card you introduce into a computer so computers can connect to the network, there will be a network slot on the computers so they can be connected Printer it is recommended that the business get a laser printer as it is cheaper in the long run instead of an ink jet printer, they may need a colour printer because of graphs etc. printer can also be connected to the network so they can be shared. A network is a communication system, a collection of resources, objects and people.Any two or more interconnected computer systems can be described as a network. A network improves communications, share resources and there is more efficiency. It is recommended that the business use a metropolitan area network, this is where different sites are connected. This is because there is a shop is Apenury which needs to be connected. The two shops and office should be connected through a local area network as they are on one site. The type of network that is recommended is a client/serve r network where multiple workstations are connected to one or more servers.

Financial Terms and Definitions Essay

1. FinanceFinance is the study of how people and businesses evaluate investments and raise capital to storage them.2. Efficient marketEfficient market is the concept that all trading opportunities are fairly priced.3. Primary marketPrimary market is a power of the financial market where new auspices issues are initially bought and sold.4. Secondary marketSecondary market is the financial market where previously issued securities such as stocks and bonds are bought and sold.5. RiskRisk is the potential that a chosen action or activity (including the choice of inaction) will lead to a loss (an unsuitable outcome).6. SecuritySecurity is a negotiable instrument that represents a financial claim that has value. Securities are broadly classified as debt securities (bonds) and equity securities (shares of common stock).7. takeStock is an instrument that signifies an ownership position in a corporation.8. BondBond is a long-term (10-year or more) promissory note issued by a borrower,pr omising to pay the owner of the security a predetermined amount of interest each year.9. CapitalCapital is the amount of cash and other assets have by a business. These business assets include accounts receivable, equipment, and land/buildings of the business. Capital can also represent the accumulated wealth of a business, represented by its assets little liabilities.10. DebtDebt is money that has been borrowed and must be repaid. This includes such things as bank loans and bonds.11. YieldYield is the income return on an investment. This refers to the interest or dividends received from a security and is usually expressed annually as a percentage based on the investments cost, its current marketvalue or its governance value.12. Rate of returnThe gain or loss on an investment over a specified period, expressed as a percentage increment over the initial investment cost. Gains on investments are considered to be any income received from the security plus realized capital gains.13. Return on investmentA performance measure used to evaluate the efficiency of an investment or to compare the efficiency of a number of different investments. To calculate ROI, the reach (return) of an investment is divided by the cost of the investment the impression is expressed as a percentage or a ratio.14. immediate payment flowCash flow is a revenue or expense stream that changes a cash account over a given period. Cash inflows usually swot up from one of three activities financing, operations or investing although this also occurs as a result of donations or gifts in the case of personal finance. Cash outflows result from expenses or investments. This holds true for both business and personal finance

Love and Memory in Deuteronomy Essay

Love and Memory in Deuteronomy, is the prompt for this weeks reflection paper. First, we must identify what each of those terms means to us in context to Deuteronomy and for me Love does not just mean love in the sense that we all know. Although you could easily write a reflection inwardness the many ways deity displayed his love to his people, like when he parted the seas for them and crushed the Egyptians behind them, or when he was slow to anger when they chose to worship Baal magic spell Moses was a top Mt. Sinai, but I choose to interpret love in Deuteronomy as beau ideals continued faithfullness to his people.Know therefore that the headmaster your God is God, the faithful God who keeps covenant and steadfast love with those who love him and keep his commandments, to a thousand generations. (Deuteronomy 79, English Standard Version) Here God is described as a faithful God, and one who will always love those that love him, and follow his word. This is such a powerful verse a nd really speaks to the faithfullness of God to his people, here it shows that God is obligated to us, that he must love those that love him. I think it also shows that he is bound to look start for us because he is our faithful creator, and that as the creator he is obligated to look out for us, to satisfy us, and provide for us, and ultimately look out for us enough so that we may seek him out and follow him with out Faith.That creation of the Covenant is the ultimate example of Gods faithfullness to us as it takes out all mystery and makes things most certain for us, and shows his commitment to us as a people, because of the covenant we know all the cornerstones of His divine government. The many I wills in Deuteronomy cover everything that we as a people might need in both the past, present, and future. There is no avenue of life that we raise reckon to where we can not find God, and he has given us clear definition of His heart and intentions by his word and covenant. Gods l ove in Deuteronomy can best be described as his faithfullness to us, and as mentioned prior, there is no greater example of this than his Covenant, and new Covenant with us through saviour Christ.And you shall remember the whole way that the Lord your God has led you these forty years in the wilderness, that he might humble you, testing youto know what was in your heart, whether you would keep his commandments or not. (Deuteronomy 82, English Standard Version) Memory plays a huge role in Deuteronomy as God is very clear in this verse, that the people are to remember, that all they have been through was a way for God to see what was in their heart, to see what kind of people they were. Memories, in general, passim time are always a great way to see someones true heart.There were times the people worshipped off-key idols or cried out against the Lord, and in those moments peoples true natures were revealed, the memories of those times are a great reminder of where people stood, and as it says in that verse that is what it was all about, was for God to measure their true hearts. This principle is still the same today, we are often judged by our past deeds, and it is not because we do not believe people can not change or that people do not deserve new chances, but often times we are what we do, and again the memories of our past actions are a great way to measure who we are as people.

The Effect of Deforestation to Human Lives

De lumberation is increasing as a global concern. In late(a) years deforestation has risen to dangerous levels. This reason is mainly due to the fact that most great deal harbour no idea what deforestation is. This deprivation of education has caused many changes in the global economy. The concerns no longer center on deforestation but in the cause it will have in our environment in the future. This issue has sparked national attention. It has caused a chain of recent jut come to the fores and policies to be introduced. Also it has brought us together as a nation to booking a common problem. Deforestation is the clearing the land of forest or trees.Many people do not even know that this problem exists, although it whitethorn be occurring right in their own neighborhoods. The causes of deforestation argon broad. It used to be thought that the lumber exertion was much to blame, when in fact the industry is very low. Most of the land was used for various other reasons such as b uilding and agricultural expansion. The land is used for growing crops and livestock grazing. In many cases the ? Slash and Burn? method is used. This is where the farmers cut down and burn forests to get to the land that is feasible for farming.Most of the tropical soils are very inadequate in nutrients and can only support crops for a few years. When the soil has been exhausted it is either abandoned or turned everywhere for livestock grazing. The effects of deforestation on the environment are numerous. The decline of forests upsets the entire ecological cycle. The forests are home to a number of rigs and animals. When a forest is cut down, the all cycle suffers. Most of all the forests act as a snow ? sink?. That is they help to take in carbon, a green house gas, and set out its effect on the atmosphere.Also trees and plants on a forest can help to supply an alternative source of fossil fuels. Tree planting is overly good for urban development. They help with heating and cooling costs to be lowered. There is evidence from the UN sponsored Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) that came out in 1990. This organization records the change of climate control and has the best of these fields working for it. It predicted that if our economy keeps releasing emissions as we are that our annual temperature would increase at 0. degrees per decennary over the next century.This is beyond what the earth has experienced over the past 10,000 years? (Muller Introduction). We currently are increasing at a rate of 0. 5 percent per year. To get these levels back to normal we would have to have a cut in emissions by over 60% humanwide. The greatest producer of these carbon gases is the burning of fossil fuels. ? With just 5% of the worlds commonwealth, the United States currently accounts for 20%of both total warming commitment and carbon dioxide emissions? (Muller Intro. ).Congressional concern over ways to reduce deforestation has grown. They center most ly on developing countries where the deforestation is most rapid. Many new plans and programs are being introduced to help maintenance with the issue. The major organizations working on deforestation are the Tropical Forestry action platform, the International Tropical Timber organization, the United Nations Conference on Environmental and developmental Forest Principles and Agenda 21 chapter on forests, the U. S. Forests For the Future Initiative, and the humans Bank.Some of these are centered strictly in tropical deforestation. The Tropical Forestry Action Program (TFAP) was started in June of 1985. Its purpose was to slow down the tropical deforestation and help countries develop plans to help with their management of such issues. It was a correlation of the World Resources Institute, the World Bank, the United Nations Developmental Program and work by the UN Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). The program is developed to help aid tropical countries in the reduction of d eforestation.Currently 90 developing countries are participating-38 African countries, 20 in Asia and the Pacific, and 32 in Latin America and the Caribbean. (Fletcher, Lyke 6) The objectives of the plan are as follows. They plan center on five major issues in tropical countries. These were defined by the 1987 TFAP. h Forrest in land uses. Action is this realm is at the interface between forestry and agriculture and would aim at integrating forestry into agricultural systems in order to conserve the resource base for agriculture, and, in general, achieve a to a greater extent rational use of the land. h Forest based Industrial Development. Planning in this area would promote appropriate forest-based industries, reduce waste, and develop the marketing if forest industry products.Fuel forest and energy. Action in this area would aim at restoring fuelwood supplies in the countries affected by shortages through foreign assistance and support for national fuelwood and wood energy progr ams, development of wood-based energy systems for rural and industrial development, regional training and demonstration, and intensification of enquiry and development. h Conservation of tropical forestry ecosystems. Action planned in this area would aim at conserving, managing and utilizing tropical plants and wild animal genetic resources through the development of national networks of protected areas, the planning, management and development of individual protected areas, and research into the management of tropical forests for sustainable production. h Institutions.Goals would be actions to remove the institutional constraints impeding the conservation and wise use of tropical forest resources by change public forest administration and related governmental agencies, to integrate forestry concerns into developmental planning, providing institutional support for private and local organizations developing professional, technical and vocational training, and to correct extension a nd research. (Fletcher, Lyke 6-7) The funding for the project is provided by governmental and private sources. It plans on spending roughly eight billion dollars over the next five years (1985-1991).It would be divided among the five areas just mentioned. There have been numerous criticisms about the plan. Mostly it has been that it is on the fact that it is concentrating mostly on the deforestation gene and failing to recognize other environmental issues. It has been said to isolate groups of people. Also, they fail to get to the real source of deforestation, which to some, are things such as over population and poverty. They say that it doesn? t give any incentives or sanctions. Although this centers more on the tropical regions, there are also many other plans to help out in our areas.The easiest way to combat deforestation is through reforestation. This is, planting new trees. This does not mean just going out and planting seeds, but genuinely planting grown trees. There needs to be educated environmentalist who know what they are doing to plant these trees. We can not just go and taper them anywhere and expect then to work to their potential. They need to be strategically placed in areas where they can work the best that they can. This is not to say that prevalent people can? t help. We can definitely all try.By planting a tree we can do our best, while making the world a more beautiful place. Deforestation is an increasing global concern. In recent years it has risen to dangerous levels. This is due to the fact that many people do not even know what it is. This lack of education has caused the problem to get to intense levels before there has been any plans to reverse its effects. Its effects are effecting the whole ecological cycle, and if not dealt with could lead to an ecological disaster. Although there are many companies out there to try and solve this problem, many people have a common misconception.They believe that we could all just plant tre es, and save the world. Although tree planting would be great that is not true. There needs to be the right trees planted in the right areas, where they can work to their highest potential as carbon sinks. This way they can help to reduce carbon in the atmosphere, while looking beautiful. Wouldn? t it be nice if we could just have a world with normal carbon levels covered with beautiful trees? Personally I would rather look at a beautiful oak or maple rather than a cloud of smog. So, in conclusion, we can all try to help, plant a tree.

Critical Study †Othello †Jealousy Essay Question Essay

green- eyed monster is explored in the song Jealousy by 702 in numerous ways. The two obvious ways are, one the title and the repetition of jealousy in the emit and in the poetizes. Jealousy is defined by the Macquarie Dictionary as resentment against a conquestful touch on or the possessor of any coveted advantage. In this song the jealousy stems from women who envy the singer of her success in finding a partner. The singer believes the women want to be her as is continually repeated in the chorus THEYRE JUST WISHING THEY COULD BE ME. This is further empathized doneout the song by the total song being capitalized. Jealousy is further explored in the proceeding verses. Notably in the third verse TRYING TO TURN ME AGAINST YOU.In Othello the opus jealously is widely explored by two key main(prenominal) characters Iago and Othello. Iago even admits and oft my jealousy, Act 3, Scene 3 148. Othello never openly admits to his own and even in his last speech he says one not ea sily jealous. Act 5, Scene 2 344-7. Jealousy is shown in the play Othello as a sickness and is often referred to as a green eyed monster, Act 3, Scene 3 168. The jealously comes from numerous areas the want for power I follow him to work on my turn upon him, Act 1, Scene 1 42, the concept that a white man should be higher up a black man, cuckolding I will chop her into messes. Cuckold me Act 4, Scene 1 188, quirkiness and envy.Othello by Shakespeare is similar to the song Jealousy by 702 in several ways. Both explore the theme of jealousy especially that of envy. The song Jealousy through the women wanting(p) to be the singer and in Othello Iago wanting to be Othello. Even the jealously Iago has towards Othello about him having Desdemona as a wife is explored in Jealousy through the lines THEY SAY YOUR BAD FOR ME. THEY SAY YOUR NO GOOD. In addition to this Iagos wanting to be Othello THEYRE JUST WISHING THEY COULD BE ME. Even down to the way that Othello believes Desdem ona has cuckolded him and deems her untrustworthy JUST CANT BE TRUSTING THESE CHICKS THEYRE SO QUICK TO BACKSTAB YOU.The text Othello and the song Jealousy are link up in countless ways and both explore the theme of jealousy to an immense depth.

Structural Functional Approach

Retrieved from http//www. cifas. us/smith/chapters. hypertext markup language Title A morphological approach to comparative governance. Author(s) M. G. Smith Source In Varieties of semi semipolitical Theory. David Easton, ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ Prentice-H any. p. 113-128. Reprinted in Corporations and Society. p. 91-105. FIVE M. G. SMITH University of California, Los Angeles A Structural Approach to Comparative Politics Comparative politics seeks to discover regularities and variations of political plaque by comparative analysis of historical and contemporary dusts.Having isolated these regularities and variations, it seeks to adjusttle the factors which underlie them, in order to discover the properties and conditions of polities of metamorphoseing types. It then seeks to reduce these observations to a series of unified propositions applicable to al adept these arrangings in twain static and changing conditions. Hopefully, one stool then postulate how these politic al processes relate to the wider milieux of which they ar part. It would seem that this comparative enquiry may be pursued i. various ways that all(a) sh be the akin basic strategy, nevertheless dissent in emphases dehydrated sta ing points.Their car parkalty strategy is to abstract one aspect of political reality and snap off it as a frame of reference. With this variable held constant, enquiries can seek to determine the limits at heart which different dimensions vary as the treasure of the primary variable is changed, the forms and values of the a nonher(prenominal)s, separately or together, can in like manner be investigated. Ideally, we should seek to deduce relevant hypotheses from a cosmopolitan body of theory, and then to check and refine them by inductive analyses of historical and ethnographic data. ActuaJ procedures vary. 113 114 /A geomorphological cash advance TO relative political sympathies Initially, we might expect anyone of four approaches to be holdful in the comparative study of political systems. These four approaches use respectively the dimensions of process, content, function, and form as the bases for their conceptual cloths. In fact, cOlIlparative studies ground on process and content face insuperable obstacles due to the commodious variance of political systems. In commutationized polities, the institutional processes of government atomic number 18 elaborately differentiated, discrete, and easy to identify.They be often the subject, as well as the source, of a more or less complex and little body of looms which may require specialists to interpret them. In simpler societies, the corresponding processes atomic number 18 r arly differentiated and discrete. They normally occur within the context of institutional activities with multiple functions, and ar often difficult to abstract and segregate for analysis as self-contained processual systems. Before this is possible, we need sovereign criteria to chance upon the governmental and nongovernmental dimensions of these institutional forms.The solid approach rests on the kin of content. By the con.. tent of a governmental system, I mean its circumstantial substantive concerns and resources, whether material, human, or symbolic. As a rule, the more differentiated and complex the governmental processes argon, the great the grade and complexness of content. This follows because the content and processes of government vary together. Since both these frameworks are interdependent and derivative, both presuppose independent criteria for identifying government. The functional approach avoids these limitations.It defines government functionally as all those activities which influence the way in which important decisions are formulated and executed for a society. l From this starting point, various refined conceptual schemes can be developed. As mandatorys or implications of these decisional processes, David Easton identifies five ways of action as unavoidable elements of all political systems legislation, administration, adjudication, the ontogeny of demands, and the development of support and solidarity. They may be hosted as input and output infallibles of governmental systems.According to Almond, the universally necessary inputs are political companionableization and recruitment, interest articulation, interest aggregation, and political communication. As outputs, he states that rule making, rule applications programme, and rule adjudication are all universa1. 2 Neither of these categorical schemes specifies foreign dealings and defense, which are two very general governmental concerns nor is it easy to see how these schemes could begin political processes in non-societal unit of measurements. much(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) deductive models suffer from certain inexplicit assumptions with1David Easton, An Approach to the Analysis of Political clays, World Politics, IX, No. 3 (1957), 384. 2 Gabriel Almond, Introduction to Almond and James S. Coleman, The Politics of the Developing Areas (Princeton Princeton University Press, 1961). A STRUCTURAL APPROACH TO proportional POLITICS / 115 out which the initial exclusive stress on political functions might be im- . possible. But patronage their universal claims, it re mains to be shown that Bushmen, Pygmies, or Eskimos have governments which are functionally homologic with those of the United States and the Soviet Union.Legislation, rule adjudication, and interest articulation are categories appropriate to the discussion of complex, modern polities earlier than simple, primitive ones. But the problem which faces the student of comparative politics is to develop a conceptual framework useful and applicable to all. To impute the features and conditions of modern polities to the less differentiated primitive systems is virtual(prenominal)ly to abandon the profound problem of comparative politics. The functional appr oach, as usually presented, suffers from a further defect It assumes a or else special ensemble of morphological conditions.When authoritative decisions are formulated and executed for a society, this unit moldiness be territorially delimited and politically keyized. The mode of centralization should in addition endow government with more-or-Iess ordered physical compulsion. 3 In short, the reality to which the model refers is the modern nation-state. By such criteria, ethnography shows that the boundaries of legion(predicate) societies are fluctuating and obscure, and that the authoritative status of decisions made in and for them are nevertheless more so.Clearly bound societies with centralize liberty systems are perhaps a small minority of the polities with which we have to deal. A structural approach free of these functional presumptions may thus be useful, scarce only if it can accommodate the full send of political systems and elucidate the principles which unde rlie their variety. In this paper, I shall only show the enormous outlines of this approach. I hope to present it more fully in the future. Government is the enactment of public personal matters.This regulation is a narrow down of processes which defines government functionally, and which also identifies its content as the affairs which are regularized, and the resources used to bilk them. It does not seem useful or necessary to begin a comparative study of governmental systems by deductive theories which predicate their minimum universal content, requisites, or features. The critical element in government is its public character. Without a public, there can be neither public affairs nor processes to watch them.Moreover, mend all governments presuppose publics, all publics have governments for the management of their affairs. The character of these publics is therefore the world- associate object of study. Publics vary in scale, composition, and character, and it is reason able to suppose that their ballpark affairs and restrictive arrangements will vary correspondingly. The first problem of a structural approach to comparative politics is thus to identify the properties of a public and to indicate the principal varieties and bases of publics. 3 Almond, Introduction, p. . 116 / A STRUCTURAL APPROACH TO relative POLITICS As I use the term, public does not include mobs, crowds, casual assemblies, or mass-communication audiences. It does not refer to such categories as house physician aliens, the ill, aged, or unwed, or to those social segments which leave out common affairs and channelized procedures to regulate them-for example, slaves, some clans, and unenfranchised strata such as the medieval serfs or the harijans of India. much(prenominal) categories are part of one or more publics they are not separate publics of their own.For example, in an Indian village, a medieval manor, or a slave plantation, members of the disprivileged categories co nsist a public only if they form an enduring convocation having certain common affairs and the administration and autonomy necessary to regulate them but the existence of such local publics is not in itself sufficient for the strata from which their ranks are drawn to have the status of publics. For this to be the case, these local publics must be organized into a sensation group co-extensive with the stratum. With such organization, we shall expect to see to it a set of common affairs and procedures to regulate them.The organization is itself an important common affair and a system of institutional procedures. By a public, then, I mean an enduring, presumably perpetual group with determinate boundaries and membership, having an inside organization and a unitary set of external relations, an exclusive body of common affairs, and autonomy and procedures adequate to regulate them. It will be evident that a public can neither come into universe nor maintain its existence withou t some set of procedures by which it regulates its internal and external affairs. These procedures together form the governmental process of the public.Mobs, crowds, and audiences are not publics, because they lack presumptive continuity, internal organization, common affairs, procedures, and autonomy. For this reason, they also lack the determinate boundaries and membership which are of the essence(p) for a durable group. While the categories mentioned above are fixed and durable, they also lack the internal organization and procedures which require a group. When groups are cook upd so that their continuity, identity, autonomy, organization, and exclusive affairs are not disturbed by the entrance or exit of their psyche members, they have the character of a public.The city of Santa Monica shares these properties with the United States, the papistic Catholic Church, Bushman bands, the dominant caste of an Indian village, the Mende Pora, an African lineage, a Nahuatl or Slavonic village comm virtuoso, Galla and Kikuyu age-sets, societies among the bragging and Hidatsa Indians, universities, medieval guilds, chartered companies, authoritiesnts, and such voluntary associations as the Yoruba Ogboni, the Yako lkpungkara, and the American Medical Association. The units just listed are all publics and all are unified groups the governmental process inherent in publics is a feature of all bodily groups.Corporate groups-Maines corporations aggregate-are one species of accurate or fully-fledged corporation, the other being the corporation A STRUCTURAL APPROACH TO comparative POLITICS / 117 re sole exemplified by such offices as the American Presidency, the British Crown, the Papacy, governorships, chieftaincies, and university chancellorships. Corporations sole and collective groups share the following characteristics, all of which are necessary for perfect or full collective status identity, presumed perpetuity, terminate and membership, autonomy within a granted sphere, exclusive common affairs, set procedures, and organization.The first four of these qualities are formal and primarily external in their reference they define the unit in relation to its context. The last four conditions are processual and functional, and primarily internal in their reference. The main differences mingled with corporations sole and embodied groups are structural, though developmental differences are also important. Corporate groups are pluralities to which an unchanging unity is ascribed viewed externally, each forms one person, as Fortes characterized the Ashanti matrilineages. This external indivisibility of the in bodilyd group is not merely a legal postulate. It inevitably presumes and involves governmental processes within the group. In contrast with a bodily group, an office is a unequaled status having only one incumbent at any given time. Nonetheless, successive holders of a common office are often conceived of and addressed as a grou p. The present incumbent is merely one link in a chain of indefinite extent, the temporary custodian of all the properties, authoritys, and privileges which constitute the office.As such, incumbents may legitimately seek to aggrandize their offices at the expense of similar units or of the publics to which these offices relate but they are not personally authorized to alienate or reduce the dutys and powers of the status temporarily entrusted to them. The distinction between the capital of an enterprise and the personalty of its owners is similar to the distinction between the office and its incumbent. It is this distinction that enables us to distinguish ffices from other personal statuses roughly easily. It is very possible that in social evolution the incarnate group preceded the corporation sole. However, once authority is adequately centralized, offices tend to beget dominant and then we often find that offices are instituted in advance of the publics they will regulate or represent, as, for example, when autocrats order the establishment of new towns, settlements, or colonies under officials designated to set up and administer them.There are many instances in which corporate groups and offices emerge and develop in harmony and congruousness, and both may often lapse at once as, for example, when a given public is conquered and assimilated. These developmental relations are merely one aspect of the very variable but ingrained relation between offices and corporate groups. Despite Weber, there are a wide range of corporate groups which lack stable leaders, 4 Meyer Fortes, Kinship and Marriage among the Ashanti, in African Sys- tems of Kinship and Marriage, eds. A. R.Radcliffe-Brown and Daryll Forde (capital of the United Kingdom Oxford University Press, 1950), pp. 254-61. 118 / A STRUCTURAL APPROACH TO proportional POLITICS much less official heads. Others may have old members whose authority is at best advisory and representative yet others have a definite council or an official head, or both. In many cases, we have to deal with a public constituted by a number of coordinate corporate groups of similar type. The senior members of these groups may form a collegial body to administer the common affairs of the public, with variable powers.Ibo and Indian village communities illustrate this well. In such contexts, where superordinate offices emerge, they often have a primarily sacred symbolic quality, as do the churchman kingships of the Ngonde and Shilluk, but lack effective secular control. Between this extreme and an absolute despotism, there are a number of differing arrangements which only a comparative structural analysis may reduce to a maven general order. Different writers stress different features of corporate organization, and sometimes employ these to explain these social forms.Weber, who recognizes the central role of corporate groups in political systems, fails to distinguish them adequately from offices (or admi nistrative organs, as he calls them). 5 For Weber, corporate groups are defined by coordinated action under leaders who knead de facto powers of educational activity over them. The inadequacy of this view is patent when Barth employs it as the basis for denying to lineages and certain other units the corporate status they normally have, while reserving the term corporate for factions of a heterogeneous and contingent character. Maine, on the other hand, stresses the perpetuity of the corporation and its inalienable bundle of rights and obligations, the res publica with which it is indentified. 7 For Gierke,s Durkheim,9 and Davis,10 corporate groups are identified by their common will, collective conscienc, and group personality. For Goody, only named groups holding material property in common are corporate. 1 These definitions all suffer from overemphasis on some elements, and corresponding inattention to others. The common action characteristic of corporate groups rarely embrace s the application of violence which both Weber and Barth seem to stress.Mass violence often proceeds independ5 soap Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization, trans. A. R. Henderson and Talcott Parsons (London Wm. Hodge & Co. , 1947), pp. 133-37, 302-5. 6 Fredrik Barth, Political Leadership among Swat Pathans. Monographs in Social Anthropology, London School of Economics, No. 19 (London University of London Press, 1959). 7 H. S. Maine, Ancient fair play (London Routledge & Kegan Paul, Ltd. , 1904), p. 155. S Otto Gierke, Natural Law and the Theory of Society, 1500 to 1800, trans. Ernest Barker (Boston Beacon Press, 1957). Emile Durkheim, The Division of Labour in Society, trans. George E. Simpson (New York Free Press of Glencoe, Inc. , 1933). 10 sewer P. Davis, Corporations (New York Capricorn Books, 1961), p. 34. 11 Jack Goody, The Classification of Double Descent Systems, Current Anthropology II, No. 1 (1961), 5, 22-3. A STRUCTURAL APPROACH TO COMPARATIVE POLITICS / 119 ently of corporate groups. Corporate action is typically action to regulate corporate affairs-that is, to exercise and protect corporate rights, to enforce corporate obligations, and to allocate corporate responsibilities and privileges.When a group holds a common estate, this tenure and its exercise inevitably involve corporate action, as does any rite in which the members or representatives of the group engage as a unit. Even the maintenance of the groups identity and closure entails modes of corporate action, the complexity and implications of which vary with the situation. It is thus quite fallacious to identify corporate action all with coordinated physical movements. A chorus is not a corporate group.The presumed perpetuity, boundedness, determinate membership, and identity of a corporation, all more or less clearly entail one another, as do its requisite features of autonomy, organization, procedure, and common affairs. It is largely because of this interdependence an d circularity among their elements that corporations die so hard but by the same token, none of these elements alone can constitute or maintain a corporation. An office persists as a unit plane if it is not occupied, providing that the corpus of rights, responsibilities, and powers which constitute it still persists.To modify or eliminate the office, it is necessary to modify. or eliminate its content. Among Kung bushmen, bands persist as corporate groups even when they have no members or heads12 these bands are units holding an inalienable estate of water holes, veldkos areas, etc. , and constitute the fixed points of Kung geography and society. The Bushmans world being constituted by corporate bands, the reconstitution of these bands is unavoidable, whenever their dissolution makes this necessary.As units which are each defined by an exclusive universitas juris, corporations furnish the frameworks of law and authoritative regulation for the societies that they constitute. The corporate estate includes rights in the persons of its members as well as in material or incorporeal goods. In simpler societies, the bulk of substantive law consists in these systems of corporate right and obligation, and includes the conditions and correlates of membership in corporate groups of differing type. In such societies, adjectival law consists in the usual modes of corporate procedure. To a much greater extent than is commonly ealized, this is also the case with modern societies. The persistence, internal autonomy, and structural uniformity of the corporations which constitute the society ensure corresponding uniformity in its legal rules and their regular application over space and time. As modal units of social process and structure, corporations win the framework in which the jural aspects of social relations are defined and enforced. Tribunals are merely functionally specific corporations charged with treatment issues of certain kinds. Neither tribunals nor the sy stematic ap12 Lorna Marshall, Kung Bushmen Bands, A/rica, XXX (1960), 325- 5). 120 / A STRUCTURAL APPROACH TO COMPARATIVE POLITICS plication of the force of politically organized society13 are necessary or sufficient for the establishment of law. The law of a primitive society consists in its traditional procedures and modes of corporate action, and is unverbalized in the traditional rights, obligations, and conditions of corporate membership. In such societies, units which hold the same type of corporate estate are structurally homologous, and are generally phrased in such a way that each depends on the tacit recognition or active support of its fellows to maintain and enjoy its estate.Thus, in these simpler systems, social order consists in the regulation of relations between the constitutive corporations as well as within them. In societies which lack central political organs, societal boundaries coincide with the maximum range of an identical corporate constitution, on the ar ticulation of which the social order depends. Though the component corporations are all discrete, they are also interdependent. But they may be associate together in a number of different ways, with event differences in their social systems.In some cases, functionally distinct corporations may be classified together in purely formal categories, such as moieties, clans, or castes. The Kagoro of northern Nigeria illustrate this. 14 In other cases, corporations which are formally and functionally distinct may form a wider public having certain common interests and affairs. The LoDagaba of northern Ghana and Upper Volta are an example. 15 In still other cases, corporations are linked individually to one another in a complex series of alliances and associations, with cooccur margins in such a way that they all are related, directly or indirectly, in the same web.Fortes has given us a very detailed analysis of such a system among the Tallensi. 16 However they are articulated in societ ies which lack central institutions, it is the extensive replication of these corporate forms which defines the unit as a separate system. Institutional uniformities, which include similarities of organization, ideology, and procedure, are quite sufficient to give these acephalous societies systemic unity, even where, as among the Kachins of Burma, competing institutional forms divide the allegiance of their members. 7 To say that corporations provide the frameworks of primitive law, and that the tribunals of modem societies are also corporate forms, is simply to say that corporations are the central agencies for the regulation of public affairs, being themselves each a separate public or organ, administering certain affairs, and together constituting wider publics or associations of publics 13 Roscoe Pound, Readings on the History and System 0/ the Common Law, 2nd ed. (Boston Dunster House Bookshop, 1913), p. 4. 14 M. G.Smith, Kagoro Political Development, Human Organization, XIX, No. 3 (1960), 37-49. 15 Jack Goody, Fields of Social Control among the LoDagaba, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, LXXXVII, Part I (1957),75-104. 16 Meyer Fortes, The Dynamics 0/ Clanship among the Tallensi (London Oxford University Press, 1945). 17 E. R. Leach, Political Systems of Highland Burma (London G. Bell & Sons, Ltd. , 1954). A STRUCTURAL APPROACH TO COMPARATIVE POLITICS / 121 for others. By the same token, they are the sources or frameworks of disorder.In some acephalous societies, disorder seems more or less perennial, and consists mainly in strife within and between corporations. Centralization, despite its merits, does not really shut out disorder. In concentrating authority, it simultaneously concentrates the vulnerability of the system. Accordingly, in centralized societies, serious conflicts revolve around the central regulative structures, as, for instance, in secessionist or revolutionary struggles, dynastic or religious wars, and religious rites of rebellion. 18 Such conflicts with or for central power normally make the entire social body.In acephalous societies, on the other hand, conflicts over the regime may proceed in one region without implicating the others. 19 In both the centralized and alter systems, the sources and objects of conflict are generally corporate. Careful study of Barths account of the Swat Pathans shows that this is true for them also, although the aggregates directly contraposed are factions and blocs. 20 Societal differences in the scale, type, and degree of order and coordination, or in the frequency, occasions, and forms of social conflict are important data and problems for political science.To fail them adequately, one must use a comparative structural approach. Briefly, recent work suggests that the quality and modes of order in any social system reflect its corporate constitution-that is, the variety of corporate types which constitute it, their distinctive bases and properties, and the way i n which they are related to one another. The variability of political systems which derives from this condition is furthermost more complex and interesting than the traditional dichotomy of centralized and noncentralized systems would suggest.I have already indicated some important typological differences within the category of acephalous societies equally significant differences within the centralized category are familiar to all. This traditional dichotomy assumes that centralization has a relatively clear meaning, from which a single, inclusive scale may be directly derived. This assumption subsumes a range of problems which require alert study but in any event, centralization is merely one aspect of political organization, and not necessarily the most revealing.Given variability in the relations between corporations sole and corporate groups, and in their bases and forms, it seems more useful to distinguish systems according to their structural simplicity or complexity, by ref erence to the variety of corporate units of differing forms, bases, and functions which they contain, and the principles which serve to articulate them. Patently, such differences in composition imply differences in the relational networks in which these corporations articulate. Such ifferences in structural composition simultaneously describe the variety of political forms 18 Max Gluckman, Rituals of anarchy in South East Africa (Manchester Manchester University Press, 1954) Introduction to Gluckman, Order and Rebellion in Tribal Africa (London Cohen & West, 1963). 19 Leach, Political Systems 0/ Highland Burma. 20 Barth, Political Leadership among Swat Pathans. 122 / A STRUCTURAL APPROACH TO COMPARATIVE POLITICS and processes, and explain differences in the scale, order, and coordination of polities.This is so because corporate organization provides the framework, content, and procedures for the regulation of public affairs. For this reason, the analysis of corporate structure sho uld be the first task in the case study of a political system and in comparative work. For many political scientists, the concept of sovereignty is essential as the foundation of governmental order and autonomy. In my view, this notion is best dispensed with. It is a hindrance rather than a garter to analysis, an unhappy solution of a very real problem which has been poorly formulated. In a system of sovereign states, no state is sovereign.As etymology shows, the idea of sovereignty derives from the historically antecedent condition of personal dominion such as kingship, and simply generalizes the essential features of this form as an ideology appropriate to legitimate and learn other forms of centralization. The real problem with which the notion of sovereignty deals is the relation between autonomy and coordination. As the fundamental myth of the modern nation-state, the concept is undoubtedly important in the study of these states its historical or uninflected usefulness is o therwise very doubtful.It seems best to formulate the problems of simultaneous coordination and autonomy in neutral terms. As units administering exclusive common affairs, corporations presuppose well-defined spheres and levels of autonomy, which are generally no more nor less than the affairs of these units require for their adequate regulation. Where a corporation fully subsumes all the juridical rights of its members so that their corporate credit is exclusive and life want, the tendencies toward autarchy are generally greatest, the stress on internal autonomy most pronounced, and relations between corporations most brittle.This seems to be the case with certain types of segmentary lineage systems, such as the Tallensi. Yet even in these conditions, and perhaps to cope with them, we usually find institutional bonds of various types such as ritual cooperation, local community, intermarriage, clanship, and kinship which serve to bind the autarchic individual units into a series of wider publics, or a set of dyadic or triadic associations, the members of which belong to some(prenominal) such publics simultaneously.Webers classification of corporate groups as heteronomous or autonomous, heterocephalous or autocephalous, touches only those aspects of this problem in which he was directly interested. 21 We need also to analyze and compare differing levels, types, and degrees of autonomy and dependence in differing social spheres and situations. From comparative studies of these problems, we may hope to derive critical hypotheses about the conditions and limits of corporate autonomy and articulation in systems of differing composition and span. These hypotheses should also illuminate the conditions and limits of social disorder.Besides the perfect or fully-fledged corporations, offices and corpo21 Weber, Theory 0/ Social and Economic Organization, pp. 135-36. A STRUCTURAL APPROACH TO COMPARATIVE POLITICS / 123 rate groups, there are imperfect quasicorporations with must also be studied explicitly. The two main forms here are the corporate category and the commission. A corporate category is a clearly bounded, identifiable, and immutable aggregate which differs from the corporate group in absentminded exclusive common affairs, autonomy, procedures adequate for their regulation, and the internal organization which constitutes the group.Viewed externally, acephalous societies may be regarded as corporate categories in their geographical contexts, since each lacks a single inclusive frame of organization. But they are categories of a rather special type, since, as we have seen, their institutional uniformity provides an effective basis for functional unity. In medieval Europe, serfs formed a corporate category even though on particular manors they may have formed corporate groups.Among the Turkana22 and Karimojong23 of East Africa, age-sets are corporate categories since they lack internal organization, exclusive affairs, distinctive proced ures, and autonomy. Among the nearby Kipsigi24 and Nandi25 clans are categorical units. These clans have call and identifying symbols, a determinate membership recruited by agnatic descent, certain ritual and social prohibitions of which exogamy is most important, and continuity over time but they lack internal organization, common affairs, procedures and autonomy to regulate them.Though they provide a set of categories into which all members of these societies are distributed, they never function as social groups. Not far to the south, in Ruanda, the subject Hutu caste formed a corporate category not so long ago. 26 This caste had a fixed membership, closure, easy identification, and formed a permanent structural unit in the Tutsi state. Rutu were excluded from the political process, as a category and almost to a man. They lacked any inclusive internal organization, exclusive affairs, autonomy, or procedures to regulate them.Under their Tutsi masters, they held the status of serfs but when universal suffrage was recently introduced, Rutu enrolled in political parties such as the Parmehutu Aprosoma which succeeded in throwing off the Tutsi yoke and expelling the monarchy. 27 In order to become corporate groups, corporate categories need to develop an effective representative organization, such for instance as may now be emerging among American Negroes. In the American case, this corporate category is seeking to organize itself in order to remove the disprivileges which define it as a category.Some corporate 22 Philip Gulliver, The Turkana Age Organization, American Anthropologist, LX (1958), 900-922. 23 Neville Dyson-Hudson, to author, 1963. 24 J. G. Peristiany, The Social Institutions of the Kipsigis (London Routledge & Kegan Paul, Ltd. , 1939). 25 G. W. B. Huntingford, The Nandi of Kenya (London Routledge & Kegan Paul, Ltd. , 1953). 26 J. J. Maquet, The Premise of Inequality in Ruanda (London Oxford University Press, 1960). 27 Marcel dHertefelt, Les Electio ns Communales et Ie Consensus Politique au Rwanda, Zaire, XIV, Nos. -6 (1960), 403-38. 124 / A STRUCTURAL APPROACH TO COMPARATIVE POLITICS categories are thus merely formal units lacking common functions others are defined by common disabilities and burdens, though lacking common affairs. Under Islam, the dhimmi formed such a category in India, so do the individual castes. The disabilities and prohibitions which define categories are not always directly political they include exogamy and ritual taboos. Commissions differ from offices along lines which recall the differences between corporate categories and corporate groups.Like categories, commissions fall into two main classes one class includes ad hoc and normally discontinuous capacities of a vaguely defined character, having diffused or specific objects. The other class includes continuing series of indefinite number, the units of which are all defined in such general terms as to appear structurally and functionally equivalent and interchangeable. Familiar examples of the latter class are military commissions, magistracies, professorships, and priesthoods but the sheiks and saids of Islam belong here also.Examples of the first class, in which the powers exercised are unique but discontinuous and ill-defined, include parliamentary commissions of enquiry or other ad hoc commissions, and plenipotentiaries commissioned to negotiate special arrangements. In some societies, such as the Eskimo, Bushman, and Nuer, individuals having certain gifts may exercise informal commissions which derive support and authority from public opinion. The Nuer bull, prophet, and leopard-skin priests are examples. 28 Among the Eskimos, the shaman and the fearless hunter-warrior have similar positions. 9 The persistence of these commissions, despite turnover of personnel and their discontinuous action, is perhaps the best evidence of their importance in these social systems. For their speedy publics, such commissions personalize s ocial values of high relevance and provide agencies for ad hoc regulation and focussing of action. In these humble forms, we may perceive the seeds of modern bureaucracy. Commissions are especially important as regulatory agencies in social movements under charismatic leaders, and during periods of popular unrest.The charismatic leadership is itself merely the supreme directional commission. As occasion requires, the charismatic leader creates new commissions by delegating authority and power to chosen individuals for special tasks. The careers of Gandhi, Mohammed, Hitler, and Shehu Usumanu dan Fodio in Hausaland illustrate this pattern well. So does the organization and development of the various Melanesian cargo cults. 30 But if the commission is to be institutionalized as a unit of permanent administration, its arbitrary 28 E. E. Evans-Pritchard, The Nuer (London Oxford University Press, 940). 29 Kaj Birket-Smith, The Eskimo (London Meuthuen & Co. , Ltd. , 1960) V. Stefansson, My Life with the Eskimo (New York The Crowell-Collier Publishing Co. , 1962). 80 Peter Worsley, The Trumpet Shall Sound (London McGibbon & Kee, 1957). A STRUCTURAL APPROACH TO COMPARATIVB POLma / 125 character must be replaced by set rules, procedures, and spheres of action this institutionalization converts the commission into an office in the same way that its organization converts the corporate category into a corporate group.Moreover, in the processes by which corporate categories organize themselves as groups, charismatic leadership and its attached commissions are the critical agencies. The current movement for civic rights among American Negroes illustrates this neatly. Any given public may include offices, commissions, corporate categories, and corporate groups of differing bases and type. In analyse governmental systems, we must therefore begin by identifying publics and analyzing their internal constitution as well as their external relationships in these terms.It is ent irely a matter of convenience whether we choose to begin with the smallest units and work outward to the limits of their relational systems, or to proceed in the opposite direction. Given equal thoroughness, the results should be the same in both cases. Any governmental unit is corporate, and any public may include, wholly or in part, a number of such corporations. These units and their interrelations together define the internal order and constitution of the public and its network of external relations.Both in the analysis of particular systems and in comparative work, we should therefore begin by ascertain the corporate composition of the public under study, by distinguishing its corporate groups, offices, commissions, and categories, and by defining their several properties and features. As already mentioned, we may find, in some acephalous societies, a series of linked publics with intercalary corporations and cooccur margins. We may also find that a single corporate form, su ch as the Mende Para or the Roman Catholic Church, cuts across a number of quite distinct and mutually independent publics.An selection mode of integration depends on the simultaneous membership of individuals in several distinct corporations of differing constitution, interest and kind. Thus, an great(p) Yako81 simultaneously belongs to a patrilineage, a matrilineage, an age-set in his ward, the ward (which is a distinct corporate group), one or more functionally specific corporate associations at the ward or village level, and the village, which is the widest public. Such patterns of overlapping and dispersed membership may characterize both individuals and corporations equally.The corporations will then participate in several discrete publics, each with its exclusive affairs, autonomy, membership, and procedures, just as the individual participates in several corporations. It is this dispersed, multiple membership which is basic to societal unity, whether or not government is c entralized. Even though the inclusive public with a centralized authority system is a corporate group, and a culturally distinct population 81Daryll Forde, Yako Studies (London Oxford University Press, 1964) Kenneth Little, The -Mende of sierra Leone (London Routledge & Kegan Paul, Ltd. 1951). 126 / A STRUCTURAL APPROACH TO COMPARATIVE POLITICS without this remains a corporate category, functionally both aggregates derive their underlying unities from the same mechanism of crosscutting memberships, loyalties, and cleavages. In the structural study of a given political system, we must therefore define its corporate constitution, determine the principles on which these corporate forms are based, and see how they articulate with one another.In comparative study, we seek to determine what differences or uniformities of political process, content, and function correspond with observable differences or uniformities of corporate composition and articulation. For this purpose, we must isola te the structural principles on which the various types of corporations are based in order to determine their requisites and implications, and to assess their congruence or discongruence. To indicate my meaning, it is sufficient to list the various principles on which corporate groups and categories may be based.These include sex, age, locality, ethnicity, descent, common property interests, ritual and belief, occupation, and voluntary association for diffuse or specific pursuits. Ethnographic data show that we shall rarely find corporate groups which are based exclusively on one of these principles. As a rule, their foundations combine two, three, or more principles, with corresponding complexity and stability in their organization. Thus, lineages are recruited and defined by descent, common property interests, and generally co-residence.Besides equivalence in age, age-sets presume sameness of sex and, for effective incorporation, local co-residence. Guilds typically stressed occup ation and locality but they were also united by property interests in common market facilities. In India, caste is coordinated on the principles of descent, ritual, and occupation. Clearly, differing combinations of these basic structural principles will give rise to corporations of differing type, complexity, and capacity and these differences will also affect the content, functions, forms, and contextual relations of the units which incorporate them.It follows that differing combinations of these differing corporate forms underlie the observable differences of order and process in political organization. This is the broad hypothesis to which the comparative- structural study of political systems leads. It is eminently suited to verification or disproof. By the same token, uniformities in corporate composition and organization between, as well as within, societies should entail virtual identities of political process, content, and form.When, to the various possible forms of corpor ate group differentiated by the combination of structural principles on which they are based and by the relations to their corporate contexts which these entail, we add the other alternatives of office, commission, and category, themselves variable with respect to the principles which constitute them, we simultaneously itemize the principal elements which give rise to the variety of political forms, and the principles and methods by which we can jolly hopeA STRUCTURAL APPROACH TO COMPARATIVE POLITICS / 127 to reduce them to a single general order. Since corporations are essential regulatory units of variable character, their different combinations encompass the entire range of variability of political systems on the functional, processual, and substantive, as well as on the structural levels. Within this structural framework, we may also examine the nature of the regulatory process, its constituents, modes, and objectives.The basic elements of regulation are authority and power. Tho ugh always interdependent and often combined, they should not be confused. As a regulatory capacity, authority is legitimated and identified by the rules, traditions, and precedents which embody it and which govern its exercise and objects. Power is also regulatory, but is neither fully prescribed nor governed by norms and rules. Whereas authority presumes and expresses normative consensus, power is most evident in conflict and contraposition where dissensus obtains.In systems of public regulation, these conditions of consent and dissent inevitably concur, although they vary in their forms, objects, and proportions. Such systems accordingly depend on the simultaneous exercise and interrelation of the power and authority with which they are identified. Structural analysis enables us to identify the various contexts in which these values and capacities appear, the forms they may take, the objectives they may pursue, and their typical relations with one another within as well as betwee n corporate units.In a structurally homogeneous system based on replication of a single corporate form, the mode of corporate organization will canalize the authority structure and the issues of conflict. It will simultaneously determine the forms of congruence or incongruence between the separate corporate groups. In a structurally heterogeneous system having a variety of corporate forms, we shall also have to look for congruence or incongruence among corporations of differing types, and for interdependence or contestation at the various structural levels.Any corporate group embodies a set of structures and procedures which enjoy authority. By definition, all corporations sole are such units. Within, around, and between corporations we shall expect to find recurrent disagreements over alternative courses of action, the meter reading and application of relevant rules, the allocation of positions, privileges and obligations, etc. These issues recurrently develop within the framewor k of corporate interests, and are settled by direct or indirect exercise of authority and power.Few serious students now exertion to reduce political systems to the modality of power alone but many, under Webers influence, seek to analyze governments merely in terms of authority. Both alternatives are misleading. Our analysis simultaneously stresses the difference and the interdependence of authority and power. The greater the structural simplicity of a given system, that is, its dependence on replication of a single corporate form, such as the Bushman band or Tallensi lineage, the greater its decen- 28 / A STRUCTURAL APPROACH TO COMPARATIVE POLITICS tralization and the narrower the range in which authority and power may apply. The greater the heterogeneity of corporate types in a given system, the greater the number of levels on which authority and power are simultaneously requisite and manifest, and the more critical their congruence for the integration of the system as a whole.

HNA case study Essay

1. What contributed to HNAs success in the mainland China Airline Industry? 1. Chinas prosperous market conditions advance middle class (rising per capita income)Entry into WTO growth in imports and exportsMigration of rural population into urban citiesInflux of immaterial investment2. Deregulation of civil aviation market3. Strategic DecisionsUnconventional approach for a regional start up air passage chose to compete as a trunk line feeder development of feeder routes in Western China consistent with government plan to develop the Silk Road telling acquisitions that helped them to expand faster4. Effective utilization of capital markets (internal and external) to expand operational scale and lower run costs 5. CultureEncompasses Chinese culture and Western modern managementLazy Ant opening and Swapping System6. QualityExcellent flight safety standardsPunctuality rate is first in China7. Clear Strategy To be low cost providerFocused on cost expression and ope evaluation ef ficiencyCost per ASK was very lowLower maintenance cost corresponding model of planesRan aircrafts longerInvestment in technologyLower staffing cost per ASK8. Started outside CAAC did non have to adhere to government standard. Forced them to be more aggressive 9. Strong Interrelation among the blocks of businesses contributes to increase revenue for their airline business 2. What are the challenges that the company faces at both the business and corporate levels? trading UnitPrice of Oil (airline)High financing costs (airline)Entry of budget hotel competitors (hotel)Entry of upmarket international franchise (Hilton etc) into hotel industry (hotel) Credit rating firm downgraded the airline to second lowest ratingCorporate levelHigh debt level puts the company into difficulty of raising funds to expand relative industries block important to maintain relevance to its airline business 3. Was the companys change magnitude fullness a distraction to the airline business or a route to competitive advantage? The increasing breadth might work in favor for HNAs airline business as they stress to revamp itself into Grand China Airline.By increasing its breadth, it can help to strengthen the new airline brand name to other parts of the world. Particularly for the hotel business, HNA can utilize them to promote the brand battlefront of its airline business to tourists. However, HNA need to be careful of the breadth of business it can extend to. It should be kept within the boundaries of the airline industry such that whatever industries it is trying to expand to, it should contribute instanter to its airline business (obvious synergy). For example, the departmental store business does not create synergy with the airline business.

As I Lay Dying 9

May 10, 2010 013 Child Relations In the book As I lay dying(p) by William Faulkner the character that is dying name is Ad dissect Bundren, the set fall out of five children. She was besides the wife of no in force(p) Anse Bundren. Anse is lazy, selfish, no in force(p) farmer, who can hardly be called a farmer because he does al close to n iodin of the score himself. discover of an act of lust Addie and Anse married and terminate up giving kin to silver and Darl soon after. After the birth of her two sons Addie was bent on not having any more(prenominal)(prenominal) than children. The birth of hard currency confirms her feeling that words ar irrelevant and that merely physical experience has reality and significance. by dint of the act of giving birth she becomes part of the endless cycle of creation and destruction, discovering that for the first time her loneliness had been violated and then made whole again by the violation (Vickey 54). Anse wanted as galore(po stnominal) children as attainable so that he would pay as many hands a possible to work for him, but Addie was determined to have no more. This made their marriage very rocky and evanesce to Addie requesting to be buried with her blood relatives in town.In this time period this was hard because of the lack of merchant marine that they had as well as a lack of money. Her determination to not have any more children was brought to an end because she had an affair with Whittfield, which lead to the birth of embellish. Anse did not know of this affair so he design that jewel was his child. Addie decided to make it up to Anse by giving him two more children. She consciously and by design gives Anse Dewey dell to negative stone and Vardaman to replace him (Vickey 55). Among the five children that she had Addie treated them all in a several(predicate) way.Addie particularly treated specie, Darl, and Dewey dell very differently. The descent between change and Addie is magnificen t for many reasons. Out of the five children that Addie had she resemblingd Cashs personality the most. Cash is the oldest of the five children. In addition to being the oldest, Cash is also a man of very few spoken words. He can be considered a very simple character compared to the others of the novel. For example, in his first narrative excerpt from As I Lay Dying Cash speaks in list form. drawcustom-shape This is one of the most simplistic forms of talk known.As a skilled carpenter, Cash, went and built his stimulates coffin, especially to her liking in front of the window in which she was slowly dying. Cash and Addie had a alliance based off very few spoken words. Her smiling union with Cash exist beyond body language Cash did not bespeak to ordinate it love to me nor I to him (Clarke 38). Clarke is explaining in this departure how there are no words needed in the relationship between Addie and Cash. As Cash built his fixs coffin, for each piece that he completed he he ld up for her approval. Shes just watching Cash yonder (Faulkner 9).This shows how Addie was continuously looking out the window to touch on Cashs progress on her coffin. Cash is extremely determined to complete the coffin. With Cash all day long right under the window, hammering and sawing at that(Faulkner 19). This is proof of their square relationship because he spends all his time doing this strenuous task. Work is Cashs way of communicating with Addie, his essence of getting and holding her attention, and thereby assuring that unspoken understanding that has always existed between them(Bleikasten 179).Bleikasten is showing that Cash rarely speaks unless it is through his actions such as expression the coffin. Although Addie and Cash did have a very good relationship, Cash still needed something to help him cope with the goal of his convey. For him this would be his woodwork skills. The carpentering itself is an activity in which Cash can immerse himself sufficiently to i nsulate himself from the harsh reality of his develops impendent death (Powers 56). This is simply saying that Cash is using carpentry to replace his find after her death. The work of mourning begins before death has real occurred (Bleikasten 178). The mourning begins early because Cash already has a strong feeling that his mother is about to pass on so he begins to work on her coffin. The building of the coffin should become for Cash the object of a manic counter investment. If he cannot be the jewel, he can at the very least be the jewler, the maker of the perfect shrine in which the mothers precious body is preserved. In nailing Addie into the coffin, Cash encloses himself with her, burying his desire and pain (Bleikasten 179).Cash make the most perfect coffin possible is his special way of mourning and the completion of the coffin with his mothers body in he is enclosing his pain. The infant loved by his mother grows to be a man of deeds and Addie, in the absence of Jewel, calls out to him at the moment of her deathand he continues that relationship in his silent agony on the wagon(Williams 117). Addie and Dewey Dell did not have the opera hat relationship but at the same time did not have the worse possible relationship. Addie mat indifferently towards Dewey Dell, meaning that she didnt particularly care what happened with her.She didnt really care because Dewey Dell was unless meant to negate Jewel because it was her shit child that Anse did not know of. Addie purposely gave Anse Dewey Dell and Vardaman to make up for the birth of Jewel. Dewey Dell clearly did not have the strongest relationship with her mother though. Dewey Dell is not so clearly disturbed by her mothers death, yet her activity with the fan at Addies bedside may be seen as similar in protective function to Cashs carpentry(56 Powers). Dewey Dell too had something to veer for her mothers death. Dewey Dell, terribly preoccupied by the bud of liveliness within herself- the result of going to the woods, the secret shade, with Lafe- can scarcely attend to Addies death(Powers 56). Dewey Dell quickly became pregnant after an agreement that she had with Lafe. Lafe manipulated the agreement and found a loop hole and ended up picking cotton into her basket. As she lost her virginity under the secret shade and realizes soon after that she is pregnant Dewey Dell admits that the process of coming unalone is terrible (Williams 105).It quickly became clear that Dewey Dell has no need to replace the mother figuratively, for she replicates the mother in her own pregnancy (Clarke 41). This shows that Addie and Dewey Dell really did not have a close relationship because even through her pregnancy she should have been attending to her mothers needs as she left-hand(a) this world. Further more as they took the casket into town, Dewey Dells sprightliness to go to town was so that she could try to find some abortion medicine, because similar her mother she did not necessari ly want her first child at that point in time. So the daughter goes through the same experiences as her mother in pregnancy Dewey Dell discovers as Addie did her destiny as begetter, and like her mother she is snatched from aloneness only to be thrown back to it(Bleikasten 180). Although Addie and Dewey Dell have many similarities when it comes to their pregnancies they are also different. Unlike Addie, she is determined, if possible, to effect their separation. Thus, she will not name her condition even to her self because to do so would be to transfer her pregnancy from her private world of awareness to the public world of occurrence (Vickery 61).Darl and Addie on the other hand had the worst possible relationship ever. This was proven several times passim the novel As I Lay Dying by William Faulkner. Darl had said I cannot love my mother because I have no mother (Faulkner 95). This shows exactly how they have a bad relationship, but it is not just a one way street, Addie in tur ns hates Darl also. Addie claims to have been tricked by a word in Darls conception she says that my revenge would be that he would never know I was taking revenge. And when Darl was innate(p) I asked Anse to promise to take me back to Jefferson when I died (Williams 115).This is the beginning of the dislike on Addies behalf because she did not want some other child to begin with, so she intended on getting revenge on Anse. He too must finally cast the son most like him (Darl, the one that phratry say is queer, lazy, pottering about the place no better than Anse, the one who most resembles his father looking out over the landwith eyes that look like pieces of burnt out cinder(Williams 115). In this passage Williams describes why Addie actually hates Darl. She hates Darl because she hates Anse with a passion, and Darl acts just like Anse in the sense that he is lazy like his father. Because Addie accepts the fact that she and Anse live in different worlds, her second child, Darl, c omes as the ultimate and unforgivable outrage (Vickey 54). Since Darl receives no love from his mother he makes it his duty to terrorize everyone else in the Bundren family minus Anse. Never having had a mother, Darl is more surely possessed by her than any of his brothers. Darls eyes, as Dewey Dell describe them, are skilful of the land dug out of his skull and the holes filled with distance beyond the land(Bleikasten 188).Darl is known for his abilities to communicate without words, at times, a kind of nonlinguistic feminine intuition (Clarke 35). Using this ability he continuously terrorized Dewey Dell because he was the only one whom knew of her pregnancy in the Bundren house hold. In one of Dewey Dells narratives she said He said he knew without words like he told me that ma is going to die without words, and I knew he knew because if he had said he knew with words I would not have believed that he had been there and saw us (27).What Dewey Dell is explaining is that Darl speak s to her without words and knows of all things that are happening and only the most important things Darl says with no words, such as the death of their mother. Darl also takes it upon himself to confuse his youngest brother Vardaman even more than he already is. For example, Vardaman says My mother is a fish (84). This shows how confused Vardaman really is. The conversation that Darl and Vardaman had concerning Vardamans mother being a fish and the horse being Jewels mother really left Vardaman confused.As if this little part was not confusing enough for the five year old, Darl then confesses that he does not have a mother. I havent got ere one, Darl said, Because if I had one it was. And if it is was, it cant be is. Can it (101)? This conversation leaves Vardaman in a world of confusion. He now starts to doubt if Darl and Jewel are really his brothers. Darl, who seems to float through a world of words, passing into peoples minds and crossing vast spaces at will (Clarke 46). Darl w as able to make everyone miserable because he had no allayer for his mothers death unlike everyone else in the family.Vardaman had the fish to replace their mother, while Dewey Dell had her pregnancy to occupy her mom, Jewel had his horse, and Cash had his carpentry to replace the emptiness left by their mothers death. Darl had no substitute because he never had a mother to replace (Clarke 46). Darl said this several times throughout the novel in many variations. For example, I can not love my mother because I have no mother (95). There is a reason why Darl feels this way and Addie in turn hates Darl also. Darls feeling that he is not a part of his mother is more than just an expression of sibling rivalry. Addies rejection of him is unquestioning it is the most terrible thing she does. The rejection by his own mother makes Darl feels that he has no mother especially as a support system. In turn Addie rejects him because he is just like his father Anse of whom she despises as said previously. As a resulting factor for Darl, the constant exception, the journey is a continual nuisance, and he wants only to see his mother- distinctly dead- buried and out of the way(Powers 61).Darl is constantly suffering emotionally throughout his career due to the absence of his mother, and continues to be affected by his lack of motherly guidance once Addie actually passes away. His brothers, as we have seen, all end up some how displacing their grief and replacing Addie Jewel with a horse, Vardaman with a fish, Cash with a coffin. But Darls mother is literally irreplaceable (Bleikasten 188). Darls mother is irreplaceable because all his life he never had one because he was despised by Addie. In conclusion Addie Bundren had very different relationships with her children.After her death all her children had different ways of coping with her sacking also. The relationship with Addie varied greatly from her children Cash, Dewey Dell, and Darl. Cash, her oldest child, she had a great relationship with. They loved and understood one another through the minimum use of words possible. Often times they communicated through body gestures and other types of movement. To substitute the emptiness in Cashs heart due to the death of his mother, he focused on carpentry. Cash hand built Addies coffin to her approval as she looked beyond the window as she lay there dying.Addie and Dewey Dell had a relationship in which they felt indifferently about one another. They basically coexisted within the same house hold. Addie brought Dewey Dell into the world with a purpose to negative Jewel because he was Addies illegitimate son. Dewey Dell also had a replacement for her mother after her death. At the time of Addies death, Dewey Dell is pregnant with her first child. This pregnancy takes the focus that Addie would have had on Addie and redirects towards an illegitimate child of her own because she is not married. And then there was Darl.Addie and Darl had the worst relation ship possible between a mother and a son. They hated each other. Addie despised Darl because he was just like her husband Anse of whom she also despised. Darl also was her second child who she really did not want to have at all. This was the point in which she vowed to seek revenge upon Anse and made Darl an outcast. As for Darl, he hated Addie because she never mothered him his whole life, which left him garbled emotionally causing him to terrorize the rest of his siblings especially his younger ones. Darl did not have a substitute for the death of his mother.In Darls eyes he had no mother so the mourning of her would be pointless for him. Work Cited Bleikasten, Andre. _The Ink of Melancholy_. Requiem for a Mother. Indiana University Press, Bloomington. 1990 Faulkner, William. As I Lay Dying. unsanded York Vintage, 1990. Powers, Lyall H. Faulkners Yoknapatawpha Comedy. The University Of Michigan Press. Ann Arbor. Vickey, Olga W. The Novels of William Faulkner A Critical Interpre tation. Baton Rouge Louisiana State University Press, 1959. Print Williams, David. _Faulkners Women the Myth and the Muse_. University of Toronto Press. 1977.